Putting aside state trends and underlying causes, a focus on school districts reveals a strong correlation between poverty rates and education funding recovery. We present data analyses on school finance indicators, such as equity, adequacy, and effort, that expose the shortcomings of funding policies and decisions across the country. "Funding for these students should reflect the services and supports that they need to succeed." 3. Bradbury (2021) explains that the largest portion of state aid to local school districts is typically provided on a per-student basis through a foundation, power-equalizing, flat grant, or tiered program.In addition, some states include cost adjustments in their formulas. In addition to averting the harms to students and teachers described above, countercyclical investments would keep the public education workforce employed. (Figure C earlier in the report illustrates the gaps between high- and low-poverty districts in 20172018.). Recessions lead to depleted state and local budgets and, in turn, to cuts in education funding. We are interested in providing a description of the trends in revenues and expenditures over time, by state, and by district poverty level. Plaintiffs hope the court orders the legislature to allocate this additional funding. Rising inequality, schools, and children's life chances (pp. Such automatic spending constitutes smart investment that upholds public education while giving the overall economy a significant boost. Brown's focus on physical segregation inadvertently left important and less obvious aspects of local funding inequality unchecked. 2017; Sahm 2019; Schott Foundation 2022; U.S. Department of Education 2013; Washington Center for Equitable Growth 2021; etc.). 419-442). Up to this point, we have shown the characteristics, dynamics, and consequences of the existing education funding system. For flaws around one of those programsunemployment insurancesee Bivens et al. Palo Alto, Calif.: Learning Policy Institute, February 2018.. Jordan, Phyllis W. 2021. See, for example Sosina and Weathers 2019. 2017. Medium- and high-poverty districts are spending, respectively, $700 and $3,078 per student less than what would be required. We review existing research on the consequences of funding in general and of funding changesevidence that supports a larger role for the federal government. The highest-spending districts in the United States spend nearly 10 times as much as the lowest-spending, with large differentials both across and within states (Raikes and Darling-Hammond 2019). Figure H shows national trends in revenue per student, by source (federal, state, and local), from the onset of the Great Recession through 20172018.13. Education Law Center, February 2021. Sources: 20072008 to 20172018 Local Education Agency Finance Survey (F-33) microdata from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES-LEAFS 2021) and Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates (SAIPE) data from the U.S. Census Bureau (Urban Institute 2021a). Over 13 Million More People Would Be in Poverty Without Unemployment Insurance and Stimulus Payments. Working Economics Blog (Economic Policy Institute), September 17, 2020. Education funding generally is inadequate and inequitable; It relies too heavily on state and local resources (particularly property tax revenues); the federal government plays a small and an insufficient role; funding levels vary widely across states; and high-poverty districts get less funding per student than low-poverty districts. Economic Policy Institute, June 2015. Garca, Emma, and Elaine Weiss. For an analysis of state school finance reforms affecting Kansas (block grant funding that froze district revenue regardless of enrollment and reduced funding in districts where enrollment increased), see Rauscher 2020. Spending or expenditures indicates the dollar amount devoted to elementary and secondary education. Online Master of Education in Education Policy and Leadership, Online EdD in Education Policy and Leadership, Doctorate in Education Policy and Leadership, Adult wages boosted by 7 percent for students in districts that increased spending on students by 10 percent during their 12 years in public school, Graduation rates boosted by several percentage points for students in schools that increased spending by 12 percent, A 0.5 to 0.8 percent fall in high school dropout rates for New York students when funding increased by 2 to 3 percent, Funding schools serving economically disadvantaged students at higher levels, Investing money in developing the skills and knowledge of educators, Targeting money toward the development of more quality early childhood education programs and access to them, Provided additional funds to districts serving high concentrations of economically disadvantaged students, Raised standards for teachers and principals, increased their salaries, and provided them with ongoing professional development, Invested significantly in pre-K programs such as Head Start, school readiness programs, and scholarship programs to increase access to quality early childhood programs for low-income students. As a result of funding and effort variability across states, the levels of inequity and inadequacy across states also vary substantially (Baker, Di Carlo, and Weber 2020; Farrie and Sciarra 2021). After shifting its funding practices, the state, whose population is majority minority, ranked second in the nation for eighth grade reading and fourth for eighth grade math. Berry, Barnett, and Patrick M. Shields. As such, although states provide their highest-poverty districts with $1,550 more per student than to their lowest-poverty districts, and federal sources provide their highest-poverty districts with $2,080 more per student than to their lowest-poverty districts, states and the federal government jointly compensate for only about half of the revenue gap for high-poverty districts (which receive a per-student average of $6,330 less in property tax and other local revenues). This report offers insights from a robust body of research on the extent to which higher spending improves outcomes. 2021. This week I talk to David M. Perry, a journalist and historian, as well as Geoffrey Canada, president of the Harlem Children's Zone, about what comes next for American education. As a large study by Berry (2021) reveals, higher-income areas are taxed, on average, at just half the rate of their lower-income counterparts. 2021). It can also redesign the oversight system so it doesnt unnecessarily burden states or lead to ineffective use of money simply to comply with Title I regulations. Funding is a central component to providing a high-quality education and often leads to improved outcomes. See Furger, Hernndez, and Darling-Hammond 2019 and Johnson and Tanner 2018. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A National Study of School Spending and House Prices. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper no. However, counties dealing with profound poverty and crime have fewer taxes (due to government-subsidized housing) and lower taxes from low property values. Two other factors also stand out. CPI-U-RS public data series. Why Americas Schools Have a Money Problem. NPRs Morning Edition, April 18, 2016. 2017. These considerations, including specifically raising federal supports to education, have been discussed before (Boushey, Nunn, and Shambaugh 2019; Partelow, Yin and Sargrad 2020; Ogletree et al. As this figure illustrates, relative to the wealthiest districts, the highest-poverty districts need more than twice as much spending per student to provide an adequate education. 28255, December 2020. Following are key findings from the report: Our current system for funding public schools shortchanges students, particularly low-income students. Greaves, Ellen, and Luke Sibieta. 2011. Solving the Teacher Shortage: Revisiting the Lessons Weve Learned.Phi Delta Kappan98, no. These norms are very costlyto individuals and to societyand they shortchange our countrys potential. 2015. from Harvard Law School, and Ph.D. in public policy from the George Washington University. 2015. Sylvia Allegretto is a research associate with the Economic Policy Institute. 10. Author Sylvia Allegrettos analysis based on Bureau of Labor Statistics Current Employment Statistics data for 2019 (BLS-CES 2021). To paraphrase their response, Generally, no. As the authors emphasize, The hallmark of a fair school funding system is that it delivers more funding to educate students in high-poverty districts [since] states providing equal or less funding to high-poverty districts are shortchanging the students most in need and at risk of academic failure (Farrie and Schiarra 2021). 13. 2016. And, as Srikanth (2021) notes, The study reveals structural racism at work.. According to the Education Trust's analysis "Funding Gaps 2018," school districts with the greatest concentrations of black, Latino, or Native American students receive around $1,800 less per student than districts educating the least students of color. High and rising inequality is one of the United States' most pressing economic and societal issues. 8. In Utah, districts serving low-income students receive approximately 21 percent more than districts serving affluent students, according to The Education Trust. 24. Economic Policy Institute, October 6, 2017. 2016. The F-33 is a component of the Common Core of Data (CCD) and consists of local education agencies (LEA)-level finance data submitted annually to the U.S. Census Bureau by state education agencies (SEAs) in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. While no single factor creates these stark contrasts, inequality in public school funding certainly contributes. Their preferred estimates, based on the gradient of student achievement with respect to district income, indicate that a school funding reform raises achievement in a district with log average income one point below the state mean, relative to a district at the mean, by 0.1 standard deviations after 10 years. U.S. Schools Struggle to Hire and Retain Teachers:The Second Report in the Perfect Storm in the Teacher Labor Market Series. Moodys Analytics, January 15, 2021. Zandi, Mark, and Bernard Yaros Jr. 2021. Discover how American Universitys Doctorate in Education Policy and Leadership empowers educators to create equitable learning environments and ensure all students have the opportunity to achieve their greatest potential. Education is one of the largest single components of government spending, amassing 7.3% of GDP across federal, state, and local expenditures (OECD 2013). As such, these systemic and persistent inequities play a decisive role in shaping childrens real school experiences. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjv036. Why give to EPI While we leave it to policymakers to design specific reforms, we recommend an increased role for the federal government grounded in substantial, well targeted, consistent investment in the children who are our future, the professionals who help these children attain that future, and the environments in which they work. Another study finds comparable results: "a 10 percent increase in spending improvesstudent test scores by 0.05 to 0.09 standard deviations.". Those problems are magnified during and after recessions. Spending on K12 education alone is barely second in public budgets to public welfare spending (22.4%) (Urban Institute 2021b). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. 2019. Gould (2019) estimated that, in the fall of 2019, there were still 60,000 fewer public education jobs than there had been before the recession began in 2007 and that, if the number of teachers had kept up proportionately with growing student enrollment over that period, the shortfall in public education jobs would be greater than 300,000. Many school districts also support community services, adult education, private education, and other programs, which are included in total expenditures. 34. For Each and Every ChildA Strategy for Education Equity and Excellence. We have cited research that links school finance trends and educational outcomes in the aftermath of the Great Recession, but it is worth describing what the trends in student performance looked like across the country. Examining the Educational Spillover Effects of Severe Natural Disasters: The Case of Hurricane Maria, Why Our Education Funding Systems Are Derailing the American Dream, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815391-8.00023-9, Visualizing Food Insecurity: App Offers Snapshot of Weekly National and State-by-State Averages, Pathways to Inequality: Between-District Segregation and Racial Disparities in School District Expenditures, Huge New Study Shows Homes in Poor Areas Are Taxed at Twice the Rate as Rich Neighborhoods, Why Americas Schools Have a Money Problem, State and Local Financial Expenditures, Fiscal Year 2018, The Biden Fiscal Rescue Package: Light on the Horizon, Over 13 Million More People Would Be in Poverty Without Unemployment Insurance and Stimulus Payments, Program on Race, Ethnicity, and the Economy PREE, Economic Analysis and Research Network EARN, the National Center for Education Statisticss School District Finance Survey (F-33, Local Education Agency Finance Survey microdata from NCES 20072008 to 20172018 (NCES-LEAFS 2021), the United States Census Bureaus Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates (SAIPE) Program (for districts 20072018, from the Urban Institutes Education Data Portal (Urban Institute 2021a). Finally, regarding sustained assistance, it was clear that relief and recovery spending fell far short in response to the Great Recession and was cut off too soon; it took 6.2 years to recoup the jobs lost and nearly eight years for the unemployment rate to get back to its pre-recession rate of 5%. Gould, Elise. The U.S. Department of Education's 2013-14 data reveal that black children represent 19 percent of preschool enrollment, but 47 percent of the out-of-school preschool suspensions. She worked for 15 years at the Institute for Research on Labor and Employment at the University of California, Berkeley, where she co-founded the Center on Wage and Employment Dynamics (CWED). Sosina, Victoria E., and Ericka S. Weathers. As a result, public educationhistorically an economic equalizerhas instead helped widen an educational divide that is beginning to mirror the nation's economic divide. (Note that this increase was made larger by the reduced total amounts of revenues, i.e., it constituted a greater share of a smaller whole). Data Household Pulse Survey (HHPS) from the U.S. Census Bureau found that 29.3% of respondents with children were food insecure in the week of April 23July 21, 2020 (Schanzenbach and Tomeh 2020). Cambridge, Mass. COVID-19 and Student Performance, Equity, and U.S. Education Policy: Lessons from Pre-pandemic Research to Inform Relief, Recovery, and Rebuilding. This flagship federal legislation, which has since been reauthorized multiple times and whose current iteration is the Every Student Succeeds Act, is designed principally to channel resources to schools serving low-income students. Ensuring broad adequacy and equity will require increased federal investment (to more fully complement a system that relies heavily on nonfederal sources). 27838, https://doi.org/ 10.3386/w27838. Reassessing the Property Tax. The University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy and the College, March 1, 2021. Notes: Amounts are in 20192020 dollars, rounded to the closest $10, and adjusted for each state's cost of living. 1. The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina: Lessons Learned. Instead, the state government should create more significant initiatives and . Roy (2011) examined a redistributive school finance reform initiated by the state legislature in Michigan in the mid-90s, called Proposal A. The Social Safety Net in the Wake of COVID-19. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper no. Michigan has also worked to address inequality in public school funding. Table 235.20. Danilova, Maria. 4. Public education is a public good, and as noted in this report, one that helps to stabilize the entire economy at critical points. Landmark Lawsuit Challenges How Pennsylvania Funds Its Public Schools. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, March 2019. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), U.S. Department of Education. While we leave it to policymakers to design the specifics of this public-good investment, we emphasize that the benchmarks we should reach to determine that those investments are stable, sufficient, and equitable should reflect meaningful, consistent advances for the highest-poverty schools and schools serving students of color. Note: Amounts are in 20192020 dollars using the consumer price index from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS-CPI 2021) and rounded to the closest $10. However, its critical that states scientifically validate and weight their formulas according to student needs. 2012. Source: Adapted from Making the Grade 2020: How Fair is School Funding in Your State? In June 2020, UI payments accounted for 15.6% of all wages and salaries in the U.S (BEA 2020). Many schools are under-resourced, and the major reason involves sources of school funding. Few existing studies of inequalities use approaches that view the challenges and potential solutions from the perspective of caregivers. While the measures employed to estimate the impact tend to be technical, the authors emphasize that this implied effect of school resources on educational achievement is large.18 Similar adequacy-related reforms that resulted from court mandates, rather than state legislative decisions, prompted significant increases in graduation rates (Candelaria and Shores 2019). The Education Law Center notes that states, under their respective constitutions, have the legal obligation to support and maintain systems of free public schools for all resident children. (Farrie and Sciarra 2020). Our peer Western nations view public schools as more of a national responsibility and provide resources accordingly. Public education funding in the U.S. needs an overhaul, How a larger federal role would boost equity and shield children from disinvestment during downturns, For more information on the list of components under each term, see the glossary in the, Some of our analyses rely on district-level data, i.e., the revenues and expenditures use the district as the unit of analysis. Nonprofit Professional Employees Union. Some schools provide up-to-date instructional materials and equipment, while others have outdated computers and textbooks. High-effort, high-capacity states such as Alaska, Connecticut, New York, and Wyoming use a larger-than-average share of their overall GDP to support pre-K12 education and they generate high funding levels. Note that these analyses are based on cross-sectional data. J. Murnane. Gamson, David A., Kathryn A. McDermott, and Douglas S. Reed. The United States experienced a sharp decline in black-white school segregation from the 1960s through the late 1980s following court cases and enforcement measures. 2021. Some states and local districts have already revised their funding systems and made significant strides in student achievement as a result. 2018. Anderson, Allison. But the governor, legislators, advocates, educators and experts agree that the state needs to commit even more to education, pointing to cost-of-living-adjusted rankings that place California 41st in education spending. Students line up in the morning at a school in New York City on Sept. 27, 2021. 2013. The federal government chips in about 8 to 9 percent of school budgets nationally, but much of this is through programs such as Head Start and free and reduced-price lunch programs. 2020. She developed this study while she was at the Economic Policy Institute (2013-2021). Schools were unprepared not only to support learning but also to deliver the supports and services they were accustomed to providing, which go far beyond instruction (Garca and Weiss 2020). Extensive research has exposed the challenges associated with this unique American system for funding public schools.6 The myriad factors that drive school fundingpolitics and political affiliation, state legislative and judicial decisions, property values, tax rates, and effort, among othersvary substantially from one community to another. Pathways to Inequality: Between-District Segregation and Racial Disparities in School District Expenditures. AERA Open 5, no. By. 2016. It's not just a divide between rich and poor but also between the ultra rich and everyone else. In 2013, the Equity and Excellence Commission issued a report to the U.S. Secretary of Education that recommended, among other things, a "restructuring of the finance systems that underlie every decision about schools." There are a wealth of data resources that speak to these issues and facilitate comparisons and analysis. Linking information on the reforms to administrative data about the children who attended the schools, the authors found that the increase in school funding was associated with slight increases in years of educational attainment, and with higher adult wages and reduced odds of adult poverty, as well as with improvements to schools themselvesincreased teacher salaries, reduced student-to-teacher ratios, higher school quality, and even longer school years (Jackson, Johnson, and Persico 2016). We show that federal investment that sustains school funding throughout recessions and recoveries would provide three major advantages: It would help boost educational instruction and standards, it would provide continued high-quality instruction for students and employment to the public education workforce, and it would stimulate economic recovery. Copy the code below to embed this chart on your website. Table prepared in February 2020. Because the federal government already provides substantial support to state and local governments in such times, bolstering and further targeting that support in a defined and concerted manner would entail a relatively light lift. Lots of well intentioned federal and state programs come with special. The financing systems of public schools in the US ensure that community wealth disparities carry over into education. Districts owed the most The Reading School District where 95% of students are from low-income families and more than a quarter are English language learners spends about $8,600 less . Districts in high-poverty areas, which serve larger shares of students of color, get less funding per student than districts in low-poverty areas, which predominantly serve white students, highlighting the systems inequity. A note about the final sensitivity analysis: Following the nature of F33 and the weights available in the surveys, our unit of analysis is the district, and we present unweighted averages across districts. These programs and the extent to which they are funded by school districts vary greatly both across and within states and school districts. See NCES 2008. 2017. The general, long-standing funding inadequacies and inequities combined with the worsening of these problems during and in the aftermath of recessions have both short- and long-term repercussions that are costly for the students as well as for the country. 2020a. In contrast to European and Asian nations that fund schools centrally and equally, the wealthiest 10 percent of U.S. school districts spend nearly 10 times more than the poorest 10 percent, and. Reardon, S.F., A.D. Ho, B.R. We propose that policymakers create a program for funding education during downturns that is of adequate magnitude and provides immediate, sufficiently large, and sustained relief as needed. 2020. The Golden State is home to countless tech giants, an enormous entertainment industry, major agricultural regions, and many other successful industries. We produce updated estimates for the main school finance indicators and we look at trends in the main variables (per-student revenue and spending) during recessions to see the potential of a solid response from the system to respond, counter, and recover from economic recessions. Money for public schools does not flow . This lack of preparation was the result of both a lack of contingency planning as well as a failure to build up resources to be ready to adequately address emergency needs and to compensate for the resources drained during the emergencies, as well as to afford the provision of flexible learning approaches to continue education (Garca and Weiss 2021). New York, NY . Drawing on national data, I find that the income achievement gap is larger in highly segregated metropolitan areas. Increased federal spending on education after recessions helps mitigate funding shortfalls and inequities. Public schools are funded through a combination of local, state, and federal dollars. Activity #3: Investigate the relationship between school segregation, funding and inequality. 2020. Accessed March 2021. Millions of students and educators in the US grapple with disparities in their schools on a daily basis. Figure 1 provides a simple model of the relationship of schooling resources to children's school achievement: The financing of public education systems depends on states' fiscal capacitytheir wealth and incomecombined with how they tax states and localities. 2: 112. 25368. Garca, Emma. Turner, Corey, Reema Khrais, Tim Lloyd, Alexandra Olgin, Laura Isensee, Becky Vevea, and Dan Carsen. It should not be surprising that scores from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), the most reliable indicator over time of how much students are learning, show stagnant performance in math and reading for both fourth- and eighth-graders between 2009 and 2019 (NAGB 2019). Increases in public education spending during downturns work as automatic stabilizers for schools and provide stimulus to boost economic recovery. , 2021 ; funding for these students should reflect the services and supports that they to. 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Workforce employed March 2019 sharp decline in black-white school segregation from the perspective of caregivers real school.! Dan Carsen and everyone else education and often leads to improved outcomes in general and of funding that... To societyand they shortchange our countrys potential across and within states and school districts also support community services adult! Study while she was at the Economic Policy Institute this report offers insights from a body... ( 2013-2021 ) hope the court orders the legislature to allocate this additional funding 700 and $ per... Per student less than what would be required rising inequality is one of the United states & # x27 s. ), U.S. Department of education Victoria E., and U.S. education Policy: Lessons Learned enforcement measures causes! Complement a system that relies heavily on nonfederal sources ) offers insights a... 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Already revised their funding systems and made significant strides in student achievement as a result and secondary.! Performance, Equity, and Ph.D. in public budgets to public welfare spending ( 22.4 % (! The mid-90s, called Proposal a, we have shown the characteristics, dynamics, and federal dollars ; pressing! Student less than what would be in poverty Without Unemployment Insurance and Stimulus Payments through combination! School of public schools are under-resourced, and Ph.D. in public Policy from the George Washington University one of existing. Affluent students, particularly low-income students receive approximately 21 percent more than districts serving students. S focus on physical segregation inadvertently left important and less obvious aspects of local state. Districts vary greatly both across and within states inequality in public school funding scholarly articles school districts reveals a correlation. Have shown the characteristics, dynamics, and Douglas S. Reed in shaping real... School of public schools are under-resourced, and Ph.D. in public Policy from the:! People would be required tech giants, an enormous entertainment industry, major agricultural regions, and consequences the. Legislature in Michigan in the Wake of covid-19 are included in total expenditures approaches that view the and. Author sylvia Allegrettos analysis based on cross-sectional data Olgin, Laura Isensee, Becky,... That these analyses are based on Bureau of Labor Statistics current Employment Statistics for! Roy ( 2011 ) examined a redistributive school finance reform initiated by the state should. Millions of students and teachers described above, countercyclical investments would keep public. Recovery, and other programs, which are included in total expenditures Isensee Becky... Poor but also between the ultra rich and poor but also between the ultra rich and else... Students, particularly low-income students in general and of funding changesevidence that a... Statistics current Employment Statistics data for 2019 ( BLS-CES 2021 ) putting aside state and!, Tim Lloyd, Alexandra Olgin, inequality in public school funding scholarly articles Isensee, Becky Vevea, and in! And textbooks local, state, and many other successful industries intentioned federal and state programs come special! Many school districts reveals a strong correlation between poverty rates and education funding recovery & quot funding! A sharp decline in black-white school segregation, funding and inequality government should create more significant initiatives and ;.... Spending during downturns work as automatic stabilizers for schools and provide Stimulus boost! Economic recovery the court orders the legislature to allocate this additional funding U.S. Department of.! Millions of students and educators in the Wake of covid-19 on the consequences of funding in general of! Current system for funding public schools shortchanges students, particularly low-income students she was at the Economic Policy Institute 2013-2021. Economic Policy Institute ), September 17, 2020 very costlyto individuals and to societyand they shortchange our potential!, we have shown the characteristics, dynamics, and Bernard Yaros Jr. 2021, have. Require increased federal spending on education after recessions helps mitigate funding shortfalls and.! ) notes, the state government should create more significant initiatives and local. Other successful industries and persistent inequities play a decisive role in shaping real! Intentioned federal and state programs come with special segregation and Racial disparities in school District.. Body of research on the extent to which higher spending improves outcomes in general and funding. Require increased federal investment ( to more fully complement a system that relies heavily on nonfederal sources ) is. Of school spending and House Prices UI Payments accounted for 15.6 % all! Into education the income achievement gap is larger in highly segregated metropolitan.... Education Equity and Excellence Katrina: Lessons Learned black-white school segregation, and. In their schools on a daily basis also between the ultra rich and everyone else creates these stark contrasts inequality. & quot ; funding for these students should reflect the services and supports they. Reveals a strong correlation between poverty rates and education funding recovery Michigan has also worked to address in... These stark contrasts, inequality in public budgets to public welfare spending 22.4! Bea 2020 ) workforce employed Challenges How Pennsylvania Funds Its public schools in US! The United states & # x27 ; s focus on school districts vary greatly both across within! Statistics ( NCES ), September 17, 2020 of education putting aside state trends and underlying,. Investment ( to more fully complement a system that relies heavily on nonfederal sources ) pressing and. Point, we have shown the characteristics, dynamics, and Darling-Hammond 2019 and Johnson and Tanner.... Come with special for these students should reflect the services and supports that they to! Societal issues Hurricane Katrina: Lessons from Pre-pandemic research to Inform Relief,,. Mcdermott, and Bernard Yaros Jr. 2021 court cases and enforcement measures,. Bivens et al Corey, Reema Khrais, Tim Lloyd, Alexandra Olgin, Laura Isensee, Becky Vevea and! From Harvard Law school, and Dan Carsen insights from a robust body of research on consequences... In turn, to cuts in education funding recovery of all wages and salaries in the US that. Lots of well intentioned federal and state programs come with special to embed this chart on Your website New City! A divide between rich and poor but also between the ultra rich and poor but also between the rich! Funding for these students should reflect the services and supports that they need to succeed. & quot ;....
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inequality in public school funding scholarly articles